China’s Laogai and Technological Surveillance: A History of Control
Inspired by the Soviet gulag system, China’s laogai (reform through labor) and laojiao (re-education through labor) have, since their inception, subjected millions accused of deviance to forced labor. These systems, evolving from pre-Mao Zedong practices, continue to shape China’s approach to social control, now amplified by advanced technologies. This article examines the history of these camps, the individuals targeted, and the role of surveillance in maintaining power, drawing on the research of political scientist Jean-Philippe Béja and other sources.
Methodology and the Power of Testimony
Jean-Philippe Béja’s work, including his recent book Monitor and Punish in China, stems from a documentary series, “The Camps, Secret of Chinese Power,” broadcast on Arte in March 2023. Béja and director Tania Rakhmanova deliberately focused on individual testimonies, recognizing the limitations of accessing official Communist Party archives. Rakhmanova, with her background in the Soviet system, brought a comparative perspective, highlighting parallels between the two systems. The project involved interviewing approximately twenty former political prisoners in the United States, representing 75 years of history within the People’s Republic of China.
Béja emphasizes the importance of individual stories in understanding the functioning of the regime, how it creates dissidents, and the forms of resistance that emerge. He notes that relying on personal accounts is often the only available source, given the lack of access to official documentation. His research builds on a long tradition of study at the CERI (Centre d’études et de recherches internationales) on repression in China.
Laogai and Laojiao: Key Differences
The laogai (劳动改造, literally “reform through labor”) involved imprisonment following a trial. The laojiao (劳动矫正, meaning “re-education through labor”) targeted “deviants” – individuals who, in theory, retained some rights and were entitled to a salary, though this was often not the case in practice. While officially distinct, the lines between the two systems were often blurred.
The laogai system originated in the Communist Party’s red base in Yan’an in the 1940s, before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. It was initially used to transform the mentality of prisoners and was expanded after 1949 to include former Guomindang officials, landowners, and members of “reactionary” political parties.
The laojiao was established in 1957, primarily targeting “rightists” who had criticized the Party during the Hundred Flowers Campaign. Unlike the laogai, it did not require a trial. individuals could be sent to laojiao based on a decision from their work unit or neighborhood committee, with no specified sentence length.
Both systems involved hard labor and sessions of criticism and self-criticism aimed at re-educating inmates. While the laojiao was officially abolished in 2013, it continues to exist under different names.
Who Were the Targets? Beyond Open Opposition
During Mao Zedong’s rule, individuals were often sent to laogai simply for belonging to “enemy classes” or having associations with previous regimes, rather than for overt opposition to the Communist Party. The anti-rightist movement of 1957 exemplifies this, with hundreds of thousands sent to laojiao for responding to Mao’s call for open criticism. Being labeled a “questionable element” or an “enemy” was often sufficient grounds for re-education or reform through labor.
Surveillance as the Foundation of Control
Béja argues that the camps represent only the “punishment element” of a broader system of “monitor and punish.” A comprehensive surveillance network, established early in the Communist Party’s rule, is central to maintaining control. This network operates through personnel departments in work units, the hukou (household registration) system, and neighborhood committees, all under Party leadership. This system tracks individuals’ actions, opinions, and associations, creating an environment of conformism and enabling the swift punishment of perceived deviance.
Other forms of surveillance include “work under mass surveillance” (管制), where individuals are subject to constant monitoring and require permission for any action, and public criticism sessions.
Technological Surveillance and the Role of Denunciation
While new technologies are often seen as a modern development, Béja contends that they represent an “industrialization” of existing surveillance methods. Despite the prevalence of technological surveillance, denunciation remains important as a means of verifying loyalty and preventing the formation of opposition movements. It contributes to the atomization of society and is actively encouraged by the Party.
Continuity of Control
Béja’s work highlights the continuity of these control mechanisms throughout China’s history, from the Maoist era through the reform period and into the present day under Xi Jinping. The combination of labor camps and pervasive surveillance remains essential to the political regime established in 1949.