Teh Bitter Taste of Hope: sa’dallah Wannous and the Theater of Disillusionment

Sa’dallah Wannous, a pivotal figure in modern Arab theatre, consistently confronted the complexities of power, betrayal, and the elusive nature of justice. His work, ofen characterized by a stark realism and a willingness to challenge conventional narrative structures, continues to resonate with audiences grappling with contemporary political turmoil.A recent collection, Sentence to Hope: A Sa’dallah Wannous Reader, meticulously translated by Robert Myers and Nada Saab, offers a crucial entry point into the playwright’s profound and often unsettling vision.

Wannous’s 1970 play, The Adventures of the Mamlouk Jabir’s Head, exemplifies his signature style. The play unfolds as a framed narrative,beginning in a customary Middle Eastern café were patrons eagerly await the nightly performance of a hakawati – a storyteller. Their desire is simple: a tale of triumph, where virtue prevails and wrongs are righted. Though, the hakawati insists on recounting events chronologically, forcing the audience to endure “the age of unrest and anarchy,” a sentiment strikingly relevant in our current era saturated with relentless news cycles of global crises.

The core story centers on Jabir, a slave in medieval Baghdad caught between warring factions. A scheming vizier devises a hazardous plan: to utilize Jabir’s body as a clandestine courier.Jabir agrees to have a vital message tattooed onto his shaved head,promising ample reward upon successful delivery. The scheme hinges on the regrowth of his hair to conceal the incriminating information. This premise, a desperate gamble built on bodily vulnerability, promptly establishes a tone of precariousness.

However, Wannous subverts expectations with brutal efficiency. The message is delivered, but not as intended. The receiving king, rather than negotiating, chooses a far more ruthless path – invasion. The play’s climax depicts the horrific consequences, a descent into chaos and bloodshed. Wannous’s stage directions call for a silent, mimed portrayal of violence as the hakawati describes a city consumed by grief and destruction: “Streets were piled with corpses, the wounded, the rubble of crumbling houses.” This deliberate use of silence amplifies the horror, forcing the audience to confront the visceral reality of conflict.

The play’s bleak conclusion feels particularly poignant when viewed through the lens of contemporary events. The devastating imagery of Baghdad’s fall echoes the recent and ongoing catastrophe unfolding in Gaza, where the scale of death and destruction has prompted accusations of genocide.Wannous originally penned Mamlouk Jabir in the wake of the 1967 Six-Day War – the Naksa – a period of immense loss and displacement for Palestinians, resulting in the Israeli occupation of important territories. The play, thus, isn’t merely a historical drama; it’s a direct response to a specific political trauma, a lament for lost hopes and shattered illusions.

Wannous’s artistic development was substantially shaped by his time in Paris during the 1960s. Studying theatre at the Sorbonne, he encountered the groundbreaking work of Bertolt Brecht, whose techniques of “epic theatre” aimed to disrupt audience complacency and provoke critical engagement. He also connected with a network of anti-imperialist and Marxist playwrights exploring the potential of theatre as a tool for social and political change. The influence of these thinkers is evident in Wannous’s own experimentation with form and his commitment to exposing the mechanisms of power.For example, Peter Weiss’s sprawling 1966 production, Discourse on the Progress of the Prolonged War of Liberation in Viet Nam and the Events Leading Up to It as Illustration for the Necessity for armed resistance against Oppression and on the attempts of the United States of America to Destroy the Foundations of Revolution, demonstrated the possibilities of using theatre to directly address and critique global conflicts.

Sentence to Hope provides invaluable context to Wannous’s life and work, offering a deeper understanding of the intellectual and political forces that shaped his dramatic vision## The Disruptive Power of Theatre: Sa’dallah Wannous and the Politics of Interruption

Recent global events, particularly the conflict in Gaza beginning in October 2023 and the ensuing wave of protests, have reignited discussions surrounding resistance to longstanding political structures and violence. Examining the work of Syrian playwright Sa’dallah Wannous, particularly through the lens of his collected works in *Sentence to hope: A Sa’dallah Wannous Reader* (Yale, 2019), offers valuable insight into the potential of theatre as a tool for both critique and active politicization.This collection includes a translation of *The Adventures of the Mamlouk Jabir’s Head* alongside other plays and essays, providing a extensive view of Wannous’s artistic and political project.

### From the Naksa to the Stage: Early Experiments in Political Theatre

Wannous’s early plays emerged directly from the political turmoil of the Arab world. Following the 1967 Six-Day War (known as the Naksa,or setback),he penned *An Evening’s Entertainment for the Fifth of june*,first published in the literary journal *Muwaqif* in 1969 and staged in Lebanon and Sudan in 1970. this work, like much of his output, employed a “play within a play” structure, offering a satirical commentary on the authoritarian Ba’athist regime in Syria. The play depicts a government official acting as a director, commissioning a playwright to create a propagandistic narrative of the war.

However, Wannous didn’t simply present a critique *of* power; he sought to disrupt the very dynamics of power within the theatrical space. A pivotal moment in *An Evening’s Entertainment* illustrates this approach:

> SPECTATOR IN THE MIDDLE OF THE AUDIENCE.(Sharply) What sort of fairy tales are you telling? You’re preposterous, you and your confused, silent characters. As for your child, he’s nothing more than a doll made of rags.
>
> SPECTATORS.>
> -That’s no way to talk.
> -Good God, what kind of evening is this?
>
> DIRECTOR.(He looks toward the audience) Watch your mouth, sir, if you please. You’re not in a café.

This direct address, breaking the fourth wall, exemplifies Wannous’s intention to challenge the passive consumption of narrative and provoke active engagement.

### The “Theater of Politicization”: Breaking the Script

wannous theorized that theatre could be inherently “politicizing,” a “theater of politicization.” He argued that societal interactions, much like theatrical performances, frequently enough adhere to unspoken scripts – patterns of behavior reinforced by fear of authority and social conformity. These scripts can stifle dissent and perpetuate oppressive systems. Wannous believed theatre could disrupt these scripts, forcing audiences to confront their own complicity in maintaining the status quo.

This disruption wasn’t limited to dialogue. Stage directions in *An evening’s Entertainment* specifically instructed for the play to begin at least thirty minutes late, with actors strategically placed within the audience initiating restlessness and questioning. This deliberate jarring of expectations aimed to dismantle what Wannous termed “the wall of silence” – the unspoken agreement to remain passively observant.

### Echoes of Disruption: Contemporary Activism and the Theatre of Protest

This concept of theatrical disruption resonates powerfully with contemporary forms of protest. Over the past year,numerous videos have circulated online – documenting activists interrupting political events,shareholder meetings,and fundraising galas to protest governmental support for Israel’s actions in Gaza and the broader implications of US foreign policy. These interventions often mirror the dynamic seen in Wannous’s work: an individual or group breaks from the expected decorum, directly challenging those in power and disrupting the carefully constructed narrative.

For example, demonstrations at events attended by political figures have seen protestors directly confront leaders, demanding accountability and an end to arms shipments. These actions, often captured and widely shared on social media platforms like

The Power of Disruption: Theater, Protest, and the Erosion of Passive Spectatorship

The impulse to directly challenge authority, to shatter the illusion of a controlled narrative, is a potent force in both political activism and theatrical performance. We’ve witnessed this recently with increasing frequency – instances where audiences refuse to remain silent, opting rather to confront those in power. A striking example occurred when protestors interrupted a speech by then-Secretary of State Anthony Blinken, voicing accusations of complicity in ongoing conflicts. The telling reaction wasn’t outrage at the interruption itself, but rather a palpable discomfort directed at the protestors, a revealing preference for maintaining the established order of political spectacle. This discomfort, paradoxically, underscores the effectiveness of such disruptions.

This dynamic echoes the vision of Syrian playwright Saadallah Wannous, who actively sought to dismantle the traditional barrier between performer and audience. Wannous believed theater held the potential to ignite real-world action, to move beyond entertainment and become a catalyst for social change. He envisioned his plays not as self-contained events, but as provocations designed to spill into the streets and inspire rebellion. Critics noted that An Evening’s Entertainment was intentionally crafted to conclude with a call to arms, hoping to incite precisely such an insurrection.

Wannous’s experimentation extended to the very structure of performance. Mamlouk Jabir, as a notable example, was conceived as a site-specific work, intended to be staged in informal communal spaces like cafés. This deliberate choice aimed to “break the rigid circular and ritualistic boundaries of theatrical performance,” blurring the lines between actor and spectator. The play called for actors to be integrated within the audience, implicating everyone in the unfolding drama. Unlike An Evening’s Entertainment, which suggested a deliberately late start to build audience frustration, Mamlouk Jabir proposed an ambiguous beginning, allowing the initial awkwardness of shared space to dissipate before the play commenced. The overarching goal was to “encourage the spectator to speak, improvise, and engage in dialogue,” transforming them from passive observers into active participants.

Throughout Mamlouk Jabir, the protagonist’s schemes are interwoven with the voices of ordinary citizens – café patrons and Baghdad residents – lamenting their precarious economic and political realities.These characters represent a pervasive sense of resignation, a fear of speaking out. When one individual dares to question the prevailing conditions,he is quickly silenced with a chilling warning: “Better to turn a blind eye and remain with our families than turn blind in the darkness of a prison cell.” This illustrates the suffocating atmosphere of repression Wannous sought to expose and challenge.

From the Theater to the Tent: contemporary Echoes of Activist Performance

The relevance of Wannous’s work became strikingly clear during a recent reading of Mamlouk Jabir with a group of students and activists at the Exeter Liberation Encampment for palestine in late May 2024. This encampment, mirroring similar protests erupting on university campuses across the United States and the United Kingdom, was established by students demanding their university divest from companies involved in the arms trade with Israel and sever ties with Israeli institutions. These demands weren’t simply articulated through petitions; they were enacted through a series of escalating disruptions. Students employed tactics ranging from interrupting university leadership meetings to staging “die-ins” at administrative buildings,demonstrating a willingness to challenge established power structures directly.As of June 2024, over 140 university encampments have been established across the US, resulting in over 2,900 arrests.

for Wannous, the true measure of a play’s success wasn’t its artistic merit, but its ability to resonate with the specific political context of its time. Mamlouk Jabir, originally performed in 1971, was immediately banned in Syria under the authoritarian rule of Hafez al-Asad. The playwright himself observed that a 1973 staging in Germany felt “skillful but fossilized” because it failed to connect with the local political climate. Conversely, a 1990 production

The Weight of Silence: Resistance, Apathy, and the Expanding Reach of Oppression

The power of impactful storytelling lies in its ability to resonate across time and circumstance. Syrian playwright Saadallah Wannous,in his work,posited that truly effective performance must be deeply rooted in its specific historical and geographical context to foster meaningful dialogue. This principle became strikingly apparent during a recent reading of his play within a university encampment established in solidarity with Palestine, a space born from the urgent realities of genocide and a growing movement challenging institutional complicity in the ongoing conflict.As the evening progressed and darkness descended, the play’s concluding lines took on a particularly potent resonance. The final scene features a chorus – a Hakawati (storyteller), Jama Surrud, and Man #4 – directly addressing both an audience and those implicated in the unfolding tragedy:

>”We speak to you from the dark night of Baghdad.From the night of sorrow and death, strewn with cadavers, we speak to you. You may claim it’s not your problem, that whoever marries your mother you call uncle. No one can stop you from saying that. Everyone has their own ideas and you may simply say it’s your opinion. No one can stop you from saying it, but if you look around one day and find you’ve become a stranger in your own house…
>
>MAN #4. If you’re devoured by hunger and find yourself living on the street…
>
>ZUMURRUD. If heads begin to roll and you find yourself being welcomed at the dawn of a miserable day by death…
>
>Hakawati, Jama Surrud, and Man # 4. (Together) If a night thick with horror rains down upon you, don’t forget that you yourself said, “It’s not my concern. Whoever marries my mother, I call uncle.” From the dark night of Baghdad we speak to you. From the night of death and sorrow, strewn with cadavers.”

This stark passage doesn’t indict the perpetrators of oppression, but rather illuminates the insidious role of inaction.Wannous argues that tragedy isn’t solely caused by those who wield power, but by the collective failure to resist that power – a paralysis born from fear and fostered by the state.

For those gathered at the encampment, this message served as a critical reminder: allowing the forces enabling injustice to persist, through silence or indifference, will inevitably lead to a broader expansion of oppression. The sentiment echoed a common rallying cry within the student movement – “Palestine will liberate us all” – suggesting that the struggle for Palestinian freedom is intrinsically linked to the fight for universal liberation.

This isn’t merely a theoretical observation. The escalating violations of international law by Israel across historic Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria, coupled with its continued expansion of occupation throughout late 2024 and into 2025, demonstrate the consequences of unchecked power.Furthermore, the suppression of dissent within the United States reveals a disturbing trend.Legislation like the anti-BDS (Boycott, Divestment, Sanctions) laws adopted by numerous states, initially aimed at stifling criticism of Israeli policy, and House Resolution 9495 – granting the White House authority to revoke the tax-exempt status of NGOs accused of supporting “terrorism” – represent a direct assault on free speech. These measures, and others, foreshadow a potential escalation under a future administration, extending beyond Palestine to encompass movements advocating for climate justice, such as fossil fuel divestment, and even abolitionist initiatives.

The Abraham accords, while presented as a path to regional stability, have also facilitated the flow of capital from authoritarian regimes in the Middle East into surveillance technologies, as reported by the Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP). This highlights how seemingly neutral agreements can inadvertently empower oppressive forces and further entrench systems of control. The weight of silence, as Wannous powerfully illustrates, is not simply a personal burden, but a collective responsibility with far-reaching and potentially devastating consequences.

The Enduring Relevance of Syrian Playwright Sadallah Wannous in Times of Crisis

The current global landscape, marked by escalating conflicts and humanitarian emergencies, compels a re-examination of artistic voices that grappled with themes of displacement, political disillusionment, and the power of collective hope. Among these, the work of Syrian playwright Sadallah Wannous stands as particularly resonant. His career, spanning decades of political upheaval in the Middle East, offers a profound commentary on the relationship between art, activism, and the struggle for self-determination.

The Weight of Normalization and Political Despair

Wannous’s artistic trajectory was deeply impacted by the Arab-Israeli conflict. While the 1967 defeat – the Naksa – was a significant turning point for many, Wannous himself identified a different moment of profound despair: the beginning of normalization between Egypt and Israel, initiated by Anwar Sadat’s 1977 visit to the knesset and formalized in the Camp David accords. This shift, perceived as a betrayal of Palestinian aspirations, triggered a personal crisis for the playwright, culminating in a breakdown and a decade-long hiatus from theatrical writing. This period underscores a critical point: the psychological toll of political compromise and the silencing of dissenting voices can be as devastating as military defeat.Recent data from the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) shows that over 2 million Palestinians are displaced, highlighting the ongoing consequences of political decisions made decades ago. Wannous’s reaction to the Camp David Accords,therefore,remains a potent symbol of the anguish felt by many witnessing perceived abandonment of their cause.

A Lament for Lost Dialogue and the Power of Collective Expression

Despite returning to writing in the 1990s with experimental works, Wannous consistently reflected on the diminishing space for genuine dialogue within cultural production. In a 1996 world Theater Day address, just a year before his death, he nostalgically recalled a time when theater could ignite meaningful conversations and expressed concern over its waning influence.

Interestingly, recent events – particularly the ongoing crisis in Gaza – appear to have temporarily broken down the barriers between performer and audience, fostering a renewed surge in collective expression. This echoes the “explosions of dialogue” Wannous once championed, albeit born from tragedy. The proliferation of citizen journalism and social media activism, with over 50 million posts using hashtags related to Gaza in the first month of the current conflict (according to data from social media analytics firms), demonstrates a widespread desire to bear witness and participate in the discourse.

A Legacy of Hope amidst Uncertainty

Wannous’s enduring message, often quoted to this day, encapsulates a resilient spirit in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds: “Our lot is to hope, and what happens today cannot be the end of time.” This sentiment isn’t naive optimism, but rather a pragmatic acknowledgement of the cyclical nature of history and the necessity of maintaining hope as a form of resistance. In a world increasingly characterized by complex, overlapping crises – from climate change to geopolitical instability – Wannous’s words serve as a powerful reminder of the importance of perseverance and the enduring human capacity for hope.

Further Reading:

amir Mirror, “Liberation Pedagogy at the people’s University for Gaza,” MQR, September 2024.

Sadallah Wannous, “Theater and the Thirst for Dialogue,” Middle East Report, 203 (Summer 1997).